Home | Glossary | Books | Links/Resources |
| EMC Testing | Environmental
Testing |
Vibration Testing |
AMAZON multi-meters discounts AMAZON oscilloscope discounts BIOLOGIC SAFETYGeneral Considerations All blood samples and other body fluids should be collected, transported, handled, and processed using strict precautions. Gloves, gowns, and face protection must be used if splashing or splattering is likely to occur. Consistent and thorough hand washing is an essential component of infection control. Centrifugation of biologic specimens produces finely dispersed aerosols that are a high-risk source of infection. Ideally, specimens should remain capped during centrifugation. As an additional precaution, the use of a centrifuge with an internal shield is recommended. Spills Any blood, body fluid, or other potentially infectious material spill must be cleaned up, and the area or equipment must be disinfected immediately. Cleanup includes the following recommendations: ¦ Wear appropriate protective equipment. ¦ Use mechanical devices to pick up broken glass or other sharp objects. ¦ Absorb the spill with paper towels, gauze pads, or tissue. ¦ Clean the spill site using a common aqueous detergent. ¦ Disinfect the spill site using approved disinfectant or 10% bleach, using appropriate contact time. ¦ Rinse the spill site with water. ¦ Dispose of all materials in appropriate biohazard containers. Bloodborne Pathogens In December 1991, OSHA issued the final rule for occupational exposure to bloodborne pathogens. To minimize employee exposure, each employer must have a written exposure control plan. The plan must be available to all employees whose reasonable anticipated duties may result in occupational exposure to blood or other potentially infectious materials. The exposure control plan must be discussed with all employees and be available to them while they are working. The employee must be provided with adequate training of all techniques described in the expo sure control plan at initial work assignment and annually thereafter. All necessary equipment and supplies must be readily available and inspected on a regular basis. Clinical laboratory personnel are knowingly or un knowingly in frequent contact with potentially bio hazardous materials. In recent years, new and serious occupational hazards to personnel have arisen, and this problem has been complicated because of the general lack of understanding of the epidemiology, mechanisms of transmission of the disease, or inactivation of the causative agent. Special precautions must be taken when handling all specimens because of the continual increase in infectious samples received in the laboratory. Therefore, in practice, specimens from patients with con firmed or suspected hepatitis, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, or other potentially infectious diseases should be handled no differently than other routine specimens. Adopting a standard precautions policy, which considers blood and other body fluids from all patients as potentially infective, is required. Airborne Pathogens Because of the recent resurgence of TB, OSHA issued a statement in 1993 that the agency would enforce the CDC Guidelines for Preventing the Transmission of Tuberculosis in Health Care Facilities. The purpose of the guidelines is to encourage early detection, isolation, and treatment of active cases. A TB exposure control program must be established, and risks to laboratory workers must be assessed. In 1997, a proposed standard (29 CFR 1910.1035, Tuberculosis) was issued by OSHA. The standard mandates the development of a tuberculosis exposure control plan by any facility involved in the diagnosis or treatment of cases of confirmed infectious TB. TB isolation areas with specific ventilation controls must be established in health care facilities. Those workers in high-risk areas may be required to wear a respirator for protection. All health care workers considered to be at risk must be screened for TB infection. Shipping Clinical laboratories routinely ship regulated material. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) and the International Air Transport Association (IATA) have specific requirements for carrying regulated materials. There are two types of specimen classifications. Known or suspect infectious specimens are labeled infectious substances if the pathogen can be readily transmitted to humans or animals and there is no effective treatment available. Diagnostic specimens are those tested as routine screening or for initial diagnosis. Each type of specimen has rules and packaging requirements. The DOT guidelines are found in Code of Federal Regulations 49; IATA publishes its own manual, Dangerous Goods Regulations. CHEMICAL SAFETYHazard Communication In the August 1987 issue of the Federal Register, OSHA published the new Hazard Communication Standard (Right to Know Law). The Right to Know Law was developed for employees who may be exposed to hazardous chemicals. Employees must be informed of the health risks associated with those chemicals. The intent of the law is to ensure that health hazards are evaluated for all chemicals that are produced and that this information is relayed to employees. To comply with the regulation, clinical laboratories must:
OSHA Laboratory Standard Occupational Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals in Laboratories, also known as the laboratory standard, was enacted in May 1990 to provide laboratories with specific guidelines for handling hazardous chemicals. This OSHA standard requires each laboratory that uses hazardous chemicals to have a written chemical hygiene plan. This plan provides procedures and work practices for regulating and reducing exposure of laboratory personnel to hazardous chemicals. Hazardous chemicals are those that pose a physical or health hazard from acute or chronic exposure. Procedures describing how to protect employees against teratogens (substances that affect cellular development in a fetus or embryo), carcinogens, and other toxic chemicals must be described in the plan. Training in use of hazardous chemicals to include recognition of signs and symptoms of exposure, location of MSDS, a chemical hygiene plan, and how to protect themselves against hazardous chemicals must be provided to all employees. A chemical hygiene officer must be designated for any laboratory using hazardous chemicals. The protocol must be reviewed annually and updated when regulations are modified or chemical inventory changes. Remember that practicing consistent and thorough hand washing is an essential component of preventative chemical hygiene. Toxic Effects from Hazardous Substances Toxic substances have the potential of producing deleterious effects (local or systemic) by direct chemical action or interference with the function of body systems. They can cause acute or chronic effects related to the duration of exposure (i.e., short-term, or single contact, versus long-term, or prolonged, repeated contact). Almost any substance, even the most harmless, can risk damage to a worker's lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes following long- or short-term exposure and can be toxic in excess. Moreover, some chemicals are toxic at very low concentrations. Exposure to toxic agents can be through direct contact (absorption), inhalation, ingestion, or inoculation/injection. In the clinical chemistry laboratory, personnel should be particularly aware of toxic vapors from chemical sol vents, such as acetone, chloroform, methanol, or carbon tetrachloride, that don’t give explicit sensory-irritation warnings, as do bromide, ammonia, and formaldehyde. Air sampling or routine monitoring may be necessary to quantify dangerous levels. Mercury is another frequently disregarded source of poisonous vapors. It’s highly volatile and toxic and is rapidly absorbed through the skin and respiratory tract. Mercury spill kits should be available in areas where mercury thermometers are used. Most laboratories are phasing out the use of mercury and mercury-containing compounds. Laboratories should have a policy and method for legally disposing of mercury. Laboratory engineering controls, PPE, and procedural controls must be adequate to protect employees from these substances. Storage and Handling of Chemicals To avoid accidents when handling chemicals, it’s important to develop respect for all chemicals and to have a complete knowledge of their properties. This is particularly important when transporting, dispensing, or using chemicals that, when in contact with certain other chemicals, could result in the formation of substances that are toxic, flammable, or explosive. For example, acetic acid is incompatible with other acids such as chromic and nitric, carbon tetrachloride is incompatible with sodium, and flammable liquids are incompatible with hydrogen peroxide and nitric acid. Arrangements for the storage of chemicals will depend on the quantities of chemicals needed and the nature or type of chemicals. Proper storage is essential to prevent and control laboratory fires and accidents. Ideally, the storeroom should be organized so that each class of chemicals is isolated in an area that is not used for routine work. An up-to-date inventory should be kept that indicates location of chemicals, minimum/maximum quantities required, shelf life, and so on. Some chemicals deteriorate over time and become hazardous (e.g., ether forms explosive peroxides). Storage should not be based solely on alphabetical order because incompatible chemicals may be stored next to each other and react chemically. They must be separated for storage. Material Safety Data Sheet The MSDS is a major source of safety information for employees who may use hazardous materials in their occupations. Employers are responsible for obtaining from the chemical manufacturer or developing an MSDS for each hazardous agent used in the workplace. A standardized format is not mandatory, but all requirements listed in the law must be addressed. A summary of the MSDS information requirements includes the following:
The MSDS must be printed in English and provide the specific compound identity, together with all common names. All information sections must be completed, and the date that the MSDS was printed must be indicated. Copies of the MSDS must be readily accessible to employees during all shifts. OSHA Laboratory Standard Occupational Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals in Laboratories, also known as the laboratory standard, was enacted in May 1990 to provide laboratories with specific guidelines for handling hazardous chemicals. This OSHA standard requires each laboratory that uses hazardous chemicals to have a written chemical hygiene plan. This plan provides procedures and work practices for regulating and reducing exposure of laboratory personnel to hazardous chemicals. Hazardous chemicals are those that pose a physical or health hazard from acute or chronic exposure. Procedures describing how to protect employees against teratogens (substances that affect cellular development in a fetus or embryo), carcinogens, and other toxic chemicals must be described in the plan. Training in use of hazardous chemicals to include recognition of signs and symptoms of exposure, location of MSDS, a chemical hygiene plan, and how to protect themselves against hazardous chemicals must be provided to all employees. A chemical hygiene officer must be designated for any laboratory using hazardous chemicals. The protocol must be reviewed annually and updated when regulations are modified or chemical inventory changes. Remember that practicing consistent and thorough hand washing is an essential component of preventative chemical hygiene. Toxic Effects from Hazardous Substances Toxic substances have the potential of producing deleterious effects (local or systemic) by direct chemical action or interference with the function of body systems. They can cause acute or chronic effects related to the duration of exposure (i.e., short-term, or single contact, versus long-term, or prolonged, repeated contact). Almost any substance, even the most harmless, can risk damage to a worker's lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes following long- or short-term exposure and can be toxic in excess. Moreover, some chemicals are toxic at very low concentrations. Exposure to toxic agents can be through direct contact (absorption), inhalation, ingestion, or inoculation/injection. In the clinical chemistry laboratory, personnel should be particularly aware of toxic vapors from chemical sol vents, such as acetone, chloroform, methanol, or carbon tetrachloride, that don’t give explicit sensory-irritation warnings, as do bromide, ammonia, and formaldehyde. Air sampling or routine monitoring may be necessary to quantify dangerous levels. Mercury is another frequently disregarded source of poisonous vapors. It’s highly volatile and toxic and is rapidly absorbed through the skin and respiratory tract. Mercury spill kits should be available in areas where mercury thermometers are used. Most laboratories are phasing out the use of mercury and mercury-containing compounds. Laboratories should have a policy and method for legally disposing of mercury. Laboratory engineering controls, PPE, and procedural controls must be adequate to protect employees from these substances. Storage and Handling of Chemicals To avoid accidents when handling chemicals, it’s important to develop respect for all chemicals and to have a complete knowledge of their properties. This is particularly important when transporting, dispensing, or using chemicals that, when in contact with certain other chemicals, could result in the formation of substances that are toxic, flammable, or explosive. For example, acetic acid is incompatible with other acids such as chromic and nitric, carbon tetrachloride is incompatible with sodium, and flammable liquids are incompatible with hydrogen peroxide and nitric acid. Arrangements for the storage of chemicals will depend on the quantities of chemicals needed and the nature or type of chemicals. Proper storage is essential to prevent and control laboratory fires and accidents. Ideally, the storeroom should be organized so that each class of chemicals is isolated in an area that is not used for routine work. An up-to-date inventory should be kept that indicates location of chemicals, minimum/maximum quantities required, shelf life, and so on. Some chemicals deteriorate over time and become hazardous (e.g., ether forms explosive peroxides). Storage should not be based solely on alphabetical order because incompatible chemicals may be stored next to each other and react chemically. They must be separated for storage. ---STORAGE REQUIREMENTS: SUBSTANCE -- STORED SEPARATELY: Flammable liquids--Flammable solids; Mineral acids--Organic acids; Caustics--Oxidizers; Perchloric acid--Water-reactive substances; Air-reactive substances--Others; Heat-reactive substances requiring refrigeration; Unstable substances (shock-sensitive explosives) Flammable/Combustible Chemicals Flammable and combustible liquids, which are used in numerous routine procedures, are among the most hazardous materials in the clinical chemistry laboratory because of possible fire or explosion. They are classified according to flash point, which is the temperature at which sufficient vapor is given off to form an ignitable mixture with air. A flammable liquid has a flash point below 37.8°C (100°F) and combustible liquids, by definition, have a flash point at or above 37.8°C (100°F). Some commonly used flammable and combustible sol vents are acetone, benzene, ethanol, heptane, isopropanol, methanol, toluene, and xylene. It’s important to remember that flammable chemicals also include certain gases, such as hydrogen, and solids, such as paraffin. Corrosive Chemicals Corrosive chemicals are injurious to the skin or eyes by direct contact or to the tissue of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts if inhaled or ingested. Typical examples include acids (acetic, sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric) and bases (ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and sodium hydroxide). Reactive Chemicals Reactive chemicals are substances that, under certain conditions, can spontaneously explode or ignite or that evolve heat or flammable or explosive gases. Some strong acids or bases react with water to generate heat (exothermic reactions). Hydrogen is liberated if alkali metals (sodium or potassium) are mixed with water or acids, and spontaneous combustion also may occur. The mixture of oxidizing agents, such as peroxides, and reducing agents, such as hydrogen, generate heat and may be explosive. Carcinogenic Chemicals Carcinogens are substances that have been determined to be cancer-causing agents. OSHA has issued lists of confirmed and suspected carcinogens and detailed standards for the handling of these substances. Benzidine is a common example of a known carcinogen. If possible, a substitute chemical or different procedure should be used to avoid exposure to carcinogenic agents. For regulatory (OSHA) and institutional safety requirements, the laboratory must maintain an accurate inventory of carcinogens. Chemical Spills Strict attention to good laboratory technique can help prevent chemical spills. However, emergency procedures should be established to handle any accidents. If a spill occurs, the first step should be to assist/evacuate personnel, and then confinement and cleanup of the spill can begin. There are several commercial spill kits available for neutralizing and absorbing spilled chemical solutions (). However, no single kit is suitable for all types of spills. Emergency procedures for spills should also include a reporting system. --- Spill cleanup kit. RADIATION SAFETYEnvironmental Protection A radiation safety policy should include environmental and personnel protection. All areas where radioactive materials are used or stored must be posted with caution signs, and traffic in these areas should be restricted to essential personnel only. Regular and systematic monitoring must be emphasized, and decontamination of laboratory equipment, glassware, and work areas should be scheduled as part of routine procedures. Records must be maintained as to the quantity of radioactive material on hand as well as the quantity that is disposed. A Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) license is required if the total amount of radioactive material exceeds a certain level. The laboratory safety officer must consult with the institutional safety officer about these requirements. Personal Protection It’s essential that only properly trained personnel work with radioisotopes and that users are monitored to ensure that the maximal permissible dose of radiation is not exceeded. Radiation monitors must be evaluated regularly to detect degree of exposure for the laboratory employee. Records must be maintained for the length of employment plus 30 years. Non-ionizing Radiation Non-ionizing forms of radiation are also a concern in the clinical laboratory. Equipment often emits a variety of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation that must be protected against through engineered shielding or use of PPE. These energies have varying biologic effects, depending on wavelength, power intensity, and duration of exposure. Laboratorians must be knowledge able regarding the hazards presented by their equipment to protect themselves and ancillary personnel. ---. Fire tetrahedron. Uninhibited reaction; Fuel; Oxygen; Heat ----- EXAMPLES OF NON-IONIZING RADIATION IN CLINICAL LABORATORIES TYPE: Low frequency Microwaves Infrared Visible spectrum Ultraviolet APPROXIMATE WAVELENGTH: 1 cm_ 3 m-3 mm 750 nm-0.3 cm 400-750 nm 4-400 nm SOURCE EQUIPMENT EXAMPLE: Radiofrequency coil in ICP-mass spectrometer Energy-beam microwave used to accelerate tissue staining in histology-prep processes Heat lamps, lasers General illumination and glare Germicidal lamps used in biologic safety cabinets PROTECTIVE MEASURES: Engineered shielding and posted pacemaker warning Engineered shielding Containment and appropriate warning labels Filters, diffusers, and nonreflective surfaces Eye and skin protection; UV warning labels ---- FIRE SAFETYThe Chemistry of Fire Fire is basically a chemical reaction that involves the rapid oxidation of a combustible material or fuel, with the subsequent liberation of heat and light. In the clinical chemistry laboratory, all the elements essential for fire to begin are present-fuel, heat or ignition source, and oxygen (air). However, recent research suggests that a fourth factor is present. This factor has been classified as a reaction chain in which burning continues and even accelerates. It’s caused by the breakdown and recombination of the molecules from the material burning with the oxygen in the atmosphere. The fire triangle has been modified into a three dimensional pyramid known as the fire tetrahedron. This modification does not eliminate established procedures in dealing with a fire but does pro vide additional means by which fires may be prevented or extinguished. A fire will extinguish if any of the three basic elements (heat, air, or fuel) are removed. Classification of Fires Fires have been divided into four classes based on the nature of the combustible material and requirements for extinguishment: Class A: ordinary combustible solid materials, such as paper, wood, plastic, and fabric Class B: flammable liquids/gases and combustible petroleum products Class C: energized electrical equipment Class D: combustible/reactive metals, such as magnesium, sodium, and potassium Types and Applications of Fire Extinguishers Just as fires have been divided into classes, fire extinguishers are divided into classes that correspond to the type of fire to be extinguished. Be certain to choose the right type-using the wrong type of extinguisher may be dangerous. For example, don’t use water on burning liquids or electrical equipment. Pressurized-water extinguishers, as well as foam and multipurpose dry-chemical types, are used for Class A fires. Multipurpose dry-chemical and carbon dioxide extinguishers are used for Class B and C fires. Halogenated hydrocarbon extinguishers are particularly recommended for use with computer equipment. Class D fires present special problems, and extinguishment is left to trained firefighters using special dry-chemical extinguishers ( ___4). Personnel should know the location and type of portable fire extinguisher near their work area and know how to use an extinguisher before a fire occurs. In the event of a fire, first evacuate all personnel, patients, and visitors who are in immediate danger and then activate the fire alarm, report the fire, and attempt to extinguish the fire, if possible. Personnel should work as a team to carry out emergency procedures. Fire drills must be conducted regularly and with appropriate documentation. ----. Proper use of fire extinguishers. CLASS OF FIRE: A, B, C, D: Class A Fires Class B Fires Class C Fires Class D Fires Use these types of extinguishers; Use these types of extinguishers; Use these types of extinguishers; Use this type of agent: Ordinary Combustibles: Wood, Paper, Cloth, etc. Flammable Liquid—Grease, Gasoline, Paints, Oils, etc. Electrical equipment: Motors, Switches; Flammable metals: Magnesium TYPE OF EXTINGUISHER: Pressurized Water Dry Chemical Dry Chemical Dry Chemical Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide Halon Metal, X, A, ABC, ABC, ABC, BC, BC, Halon OPERATION: Cover burning material with extinguishing agent (scoop, sprinkle): PULL PIN; AIM NOZZLE; SQUEEZE TRIGGER; SWEEP NOZZLE CONTROL OF OTHER HAZARDSElectrical Hazards Most individuals are aware of the potential hazards associated with the use of electrical appliances and equipment. Hazards of electrical energy can be direct and result in death, shock, or burns. Indirect hazards can result in fire or explosion. Therefore, there are many precautionary procedures to follow when operating or working around electrical equipment: ¦ Use only explosion-proof equipment in hazardous atmospheres. ¦ Be particularly careful when operating high-voltage equipment, such as electrophoresis apparatus. ¦ Use only properly grounded equipment (three-prong plug). ¦ Check for frayed electrical cords. ¦ Promptly report any malfunctions or equipment producing a "tingle" for repair. ¦ Don’t work on "live" electrical equipment. ¦ Never operate electrical equipment with wet hands. ¦ Know the exact location of the electrical control panel for the electricity to your work area. ¦ Use only approved extension cords and don’t over load circuits. (Some local regulations prohibit the use of any extension cord.) ¦ Have ground checks and other periodic preventive maintenance performed on equipment. Compressed Gases Hazards Compressed gases, which serve a number of functions in the laboratory, present a unique combination of hazards in the clinical laboratory: danger of fire, explosion, asphyxiation, or mechanical injuries. There are several general requirements for safely handling com pressed gases: ¦ Know the gas that you will use. ¦ Store tanks in a vertical position. ¦ Keep cylinders secured at all times. ¦ Never store flammable liquids and compressed gases in the same area. ¦ Use the proper regulator for the type of gas in use. ¦ Don’t attempt to control or shut off gas flow with the pressure relief regulator. ¦ Keep removable protection caps in place until the cylinder is in use. ¦ Make certain that acetylene tanks are properly piped (the gas is incompatible with copper tubing). ¦ Don’t force a "frozen" or stuck cylinder valve. ¦ Use a hand truck to transport large tanks. ¦ Always check tanks on receipt and then periodically for any problems such as leaks. ¦ Make certain that the cylinder is properly labeled to identify the contents. ¦ Empty tanks should be marked "empty." Cryogenic Materials Hazards Liquid nitrogen is probably one of the most widely used cryogenic fluids (liquefied gases) in the laboratory. There are, however, several hazards associated with the use of any cryogenic material: fire or explosion, asphyxiation, pressure buildup, embrittlement of materials, and tissue damage similar to that of thermal burns. Only containers constructed of materials designed to withstand ultralow temperatures should be used for cryogenic work. In addition to the use of eye/face protection, hand protection to guard against the hazards of touching supercooled surfaces is recommended. The gloves, of impermeable material, should fit loosely so that they can be taken off quickly if liquid spills on or into them. Also, to minimize violent boiling/frothing and splashing, specimens to be frozen should always be inserted into the coolant very slowly. Cryogenic fluids should be stored in well-insulated but loosely stoppered containers that minimize loss of fluid resulting from evaporation by boil off and that prevent plugging and pressure buildup. Mechanical Hazards In addition to physical hazards such as fire and electric shock, laboratory personnel should be aware of the mechanical hazards of equipment such as centrifuges, autoclaves, and homogenizers. Centrifuges, For example, must be balanced to distribute the load equally. The operator should never open the lid until the rotor has come to a complete stop. Safety locks on equipment should never be rendered inoperable. Laboratory glassware itself is another potential hazard. Agents, such as glass beads, should be added to help eliminate bumping/boilover when liquids are heated. Tongs or gloves should be used to remove hot glassware from ovens, hot plates, or water baths. Glass pipettes should be handled with extra care, as should sharp instruments such as cork borers, needles, scalpel blades, and other tools. A glassware inspection program should be in place to detect signs of wear or fatigue that could contribute to breakage or injury. All infectious sharps must be disposed in OSHA-approved containers to re duce the risk of injury and infection. Ergonomic Hazards Although increased mechanization and automation have made many tedious and repetitive manual tasks obsolete, laboratory processes often require repeated manipulation of instruments, containers, and equipment. These physical actions can, over time, contribute to repetitive strain disorders such as tenosynovitis, bursitis, and ganglion cysts. The primary contributing factors associated with repetitive strain disorders are position/posture, applied force, and frequency of repetition. Remember to consider the de sign of hand tools (e.g., ergonomic pipettes), adherence to ergonomically correct technique, and equipment positioning when engaging in any repetitive task. Chronic symptoms of pain, numbness, or tingling in extremities may indicate the onset of repetitive strain disorders. Other hazards include acute musculoskeletal injury. Remember to lift heavy objects properly, keeping the load close to the body and using the muscles of the legs rather than the back. Gradually increase force when pushing or pulling, and avoid pounding actions with the extremities. Next: Hazardous Materials Disposal/Accident Documentation and Investigation |
Home | Glossary | Books | Links/Resources |
| EMC Testing | Environmental
Testing |
Vibration Testing |
Updated: Friday, 2012-11-16 23:38 PST